History Plays Sem 3- Unit 1

                                                                     HISTORY PLAYS

A history play (sometimes known as a chronicle play) is a dramatic work where the events of the plot are either partially or entirely drawn from history. It is also considered a theatrical genre. William Shakespeare wrote ten history plays, each focusing on an English monarch and the period in which he reigned.

Chronicle play, also called chronicle history or history play, drama with a theme from history consisting usually of loosely connected episodes chronologically arranged.

 

Plays of this type typically lay emphasis on the public welfare by pointing to the past as a lesson for the present, and the genre is often characterized by its assumption (belief) of a national consciousness in its audience. It has flourished in times of intensely nationalistic (patriotic) feeling, notably in England from the 1580s until the 1630s, by which time it was “out of fashion,” according to the prologue of John Ford’s play Perkin Warbeck. Early examples of the chronicle play include The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth, The Life and Death of Jacke Straw, The Troublesome Raigne of John King of England, and The True Tragedie of Richard III. The genre came to maturity with the work of Christopher Marlowe (Edward II) and William Shakespeare (Henry VI, parts 2 and 3).

In An Apology for Actors (1612) the dramatist Thomas Heywood wrote that chronicle plays

At the same time, it was argued that the overthrow of a tyrant (such as Richard III, according to the Tudor reading of events) was right and proper.

Elizabethan dramatists drew their material from the wealth of chronicle (history/record) writing for which the age is renowned, notably Edward Hall’s The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre & Yorke and the Chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande of Raphael Holinshed. The genre was a natural development from the morality plays of the Middle Ages. In a forerunner of the chronicle play, John Bale’s Kynge Johan, all the characters except the king himself are allegorical and have names such as Widow England, Sedition, and Private Wealth.

No age has matched the Elizabethan, either in England or elsewhere, in this kind of play. But chronicle plays are still sometimes written—for example, by the 20th-century English playwright John Arden (Left-Handed Liberty, Armstrong’s Last Goodnight)—and the genre corresponds in many respects, especially in its didactic purpose and episodic structure, with the influential 20th-century epic theatre of Bertolt Brecht in Germany and Tony Kushner in the United States, specifically Kushner’s AIDS drama Angels in America, which debuted on Broadway in 1993.

IN England, the chronicle play seems suddenly to have risen into vogue during the last decade of the sixteenth century. At first it was more like an epic poem than a dramatic composition, loosely constructed, covering the entire life of a king or hero.

Minor events were often invented, but in the more important happenings the authors usually made an attempt to follow history.

Three plays on the subject of King John illustrate the three stages of its development: the morality King John, by John Bale, written sometime before the accession of Mary in 1553;

a second play called The Troublesome Reign of King John, written between 1587 and 1591;

 and a third completely developed tragedy in the romantic style, the King John of Shakespeare.

The second of these pieces is a genuine example of the chronicle play. It is written in crude blank verse and contains a satirical episode concerning the monastic system of the period. 

Two dramas of this earlier time, The Famous Victories of Henry Fifth and The Contention of the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster, formed the basis of Shakespeare's Henry V, and the second and third parts of Henry VI respectively.

THE CHRONICLE PLAY BECOMES DRAMA

In the midst of these efforts, while the chronicle play was still in its inferior stage, it was suddenly lifted into a position of distinction by the production of Marlowe's Edward II. Its appearance was an epoch (history)-making event. For the first time the English history play was pulled up into the tenseness of true drama. The characters are bold and vivid, conceived amply as taking part in the sweep of history. Here too is something of the power of Marlowe's "mighty line," and the skill which can portray a great figure overborne by the consequences of his own folly. Edward II is the first fine historical drama in the English language, and aside from the Shakespearean tragedies, the best in existence.

Farce Sem 3- Unit 1

 FARCE

The exaggerated form of comedy is said to be farce in which no attempt is made at portraying the loyalty of a person or his belief in real life. Its main aim is to just provoke hearty laughter. To create this hearty laughter it employs all the resources of absurd (unreasonable/ ridiculous) characters, situation and dialogue. It does not represent things just as they are but it uses live caricature (striking characteristic are employed to create comic effect) and it may sometimes contain any element of satire which nowadays is said to be purely accidental. Farce belongs to the realm of nonsense and the characters are said to be free from everyday cares and restrains. The leading spirits are actually utilized to elaborate deceptions and mockery/imitation. You will find the characters always flee from angry wives, husbands, creditors and likewise or sometimes in some fantastic difficulty they try to flee from law. The play tries to draw serious and respectable characters into the most undignified positions and often involve them is some kind of horseplay (rough play) for certain time, so there is usually a love affair to create or increase confusion in the play but at the end nobody is harmed.

                The name Farce comes from the Latin word meaning ‘to stuff’ the first form of farces is said to be simply extravagant as the comic interludes (intervening) are stuffed or inserted into the main play which is either done to relieve or to eke (expand) out its length. Example of such kind is Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream and Merry Wives of Windsor. It became a separate form of entertainment when it came into vogue (taste/fashion/style) towards the close of 17^th Century, so what happened at the end of 17^th century, the Duke of Buckingham he delighted the London city with ‘The Rehearsal’ (satirical play). But during 18^th century with the rise of Sentimental Comedy it declined to some extent but it recovered itself again with the anti-sentimental movement of Goldsmith and Sheridan. The popularity grew to such an extent where the theatre was not considered complete unless one short farce is involved in the play and even the most distinguished actors sometimes took part in such plays. During Victorian age few plays like ‘The Private Secretary’ by Charles Hautry and ‘Charlie’s Aunt’ by Brandon Thomas are still revived from time to time.

               On modern stage a good farce is certain to bring its author a fortune. Though it may not be a high form of dramatic art, farce demands unusual inventiveness and craftsmanship and it can still tempt a great playwright to use this form in writing their play for example in works of George Bernard Shaw Arms and the Man, You Never Can Tell and Androcles and the Lion, such plays can scarcely be distinguished (successful) from those characteristic of pure farce

Melodrama Sem 3-Unit 1

 

MELODRAMA

Melodrama is said to be lower in form than tragedy. Originally a song is said to have a prominent place in melodrama. But now the term is said to be reversed and has become more of a sensational (public interest) type, relying on physical action, theatrical language, behavior and lacking in sentiment for its effect. In an extravagant story like crime, revenge or retribution (punishment) the characters are said to be a mere puppets because of the evils committed due to their drinking or gambling, lost will, missing heir and so forth and in the story you will find the villain doesn’t succeed and virtue to be triumphant.

                During 18^th century this kind of drama became prominent and during 19^th century it became amazingly popular with the unsophisticated plays. But we would find the elements of melodramatic in much earlier plays also. For example in famous works of Kyd’s Spanish Tragedy and Webster’s Duchess of Malfi, one will find authors determination to pile horror on horror which proves his artistry talent which enlarges his delivery skills which is used to impress people. These plays were chiefly noted for their scenic devices like representation of railway accident, shipwrecks, fires, floods, earthquakes and other calamities. It was these merely unconscious triumph that still attracted educated audiences during the days when melodrama was played every year at Drury Lane which is said to be a social event. But now they are merely attempted in theatre as cinema shows it in a more convincingly hence such plays which are said to be an essential part of the play are now barely remembered. 

Tragic-Comedy Sem 3-Unit 1

 

Tragic-Comedy

As the name implies, Tragic-Comedy is half tragedy and half comedy, and is said to be mingled harmoniously together. It is different from tragedy as it contains comic relief and from comedy that is said to have potentially tragic background. It is a form by itself with a purpose of its own.

                The comic relief in a tragedy serves only to deepen the tragic effect and does not materially affect the tone of the play.

Example: 1. the function of Porter in Macbeth is not to be a comic figure but to show his drunken garrulousness (the habit of talking a lot, especially about things that are not important) and ignorance in murdering Duncan actually heightens the audience awareness of the horrible deed,

Grave-digger in hamlet

Fool in King Lear

All these comic characters are actually not meant to evoke untroubled laughter as the comic characters usually do, but they add their own queer (strange) fancies to the tragic theme.

A comedy with a tragic background similarly is said to be more effective for example the wrongs done by the main characters at the opening of the play, like in As You Like It, Much Ado About Nothing, they make the story and it makes us feel happy when they are corrected during the play.

But Tragic-Comedy stands on a different footing altogether. It is a complete tragedy up to a certain point and a completer comedy thereafter. The Complication (problem/obstacle) sets forth a tragic theme, and the Denouement (falling action/final part) turns it into comedy. We can say that the Rising action is tragedy and the falling action is comedy. So it is the climax that separates one from the other. One of the best examples of such dramas is Shakespeare’s Cymbeline, Winter’s Tale and The Tempest. The unusual structure of this type of play gives different treatment to its theme. The plot is not what one might expect in a tragedy or comedy but it’s a tale that is mingled with weal(wound/scar) and woe(unhappiness) which frequently verges (ends) on the improbable (something that is not true or doesn’t happen).

                The characters again are not always on one plane (standards/stage/degree). Many undergo a transformation, sometimes natural, sometimes rather forced, just before the play closes. The supernatural and the pastoral are also freely exploited.

Origin and History

Tragic-Comedy was unknown to the Greeks, whose Unity of Action definitely forbade the mixture of the tragic and the comic element. A comic Latin dramatist Plautus tried attempting something of this sort in his play Amphitruo which he called a ‘tragico-comoedia,’ but that was perhaps a mere(small) freak(unexpected) of genius and not the result of a deliberate artistic aim.

The English form arose during the reign of James I under Italian and Spanish influence, one was responsible for the pastoral element and the other for the romantic intrigue, both of which are the characteristic of the English Tragic-Comedy.

With numerous variations the dramatic romance maintained itself on the stage till the closing of the theatres in 1642. After which it was said to have disappeared, though the tragic-comic element became indispensable (essential/necessary) to the Sentimental comedy of the 18^th century and the serious play of the modern times.

 PROS & CONS of Tragic-Comedy

1.  Opposed by those who judged it by its principles and not its perceptions. Sidney ruled it out he said that neither the admiration nor sympathy/sorrow can be obtained by mixing tragedy and comedy (tragic-comedy) & Milton condemned it, Addison called it one of the most monstrous inventions that ever entered into poets thoughts. All these poets took a stand on the classical principle and none of them explained why such mixture was unnatural.

2. Dryden supports it by saying that ‘we have invented, increase and perfected a more pleasant way of writing for the stage, which is ever known to the ancients or moderns of a nation that is Tragi-Comedy. Dr. Johnson said ‘it may be allowed upon the stage, which pretends only to be the mirror of life.

 

Comedy Sem 3-Unit 1

 

Comedy

Comedy deals with the light side of life. It aims at evoking our laughter. In comedy though fortune may be unkind for a while all comes right in the end. Comedy deals with people of much less importance. In ancient Greece the comic actor wore light shoe called the sock, to show his low degree. For example some of the most memorable characters of Shakespeare’s comedies are people of rank Mr. Falstaff and Sir Toby Belch among men and Portia and Rosalind among women. Tears of laughter override consideration of caste, creed and color.

Comic Atmosphere

Comedy moves us with laughter whether it is thoughtful laughter or unalloyed mirth. It aims at giving pleasure. Comedy refined the conduct that is it corrected the social failings. Comedy served to show “the common errors of life… in the most ridiculous and scornful sort that may be, so as it is impossible that any beholder can be content to be such a one. Verse was the medium of both tragedy and comedy. For example Shakespeare’s comedies are written in blank verse. Later on comedy confined itself to prose.

 

Types of Comedy

Comedy may be classical or Romantic depending on whether it observes or ignore the classical rules explained above. The classical form was attempted by many, naming few are Ben Johnson and Restoration playwrights; the Romantic by Shakespeare and the ‘University Wits” including Lyly, Greene, and Nashe.

                Its divided according to the themes and there are numerous themes in comedy.

1.  Humor comedy of Ben Johnson, satirizing eccentricity (is unusual or odd behavior on the part of an individual), which is due to an excess of one of the four ‘humor’ or natural fluids of body, blood, phlegm (mucus), choler ( Anger; irritability. a. One of the four humors of ancient and medieval physiology, thought to cause anger and bad temper when present in excess; yellow bile) and melancholy (sadness or desolution) or black bile (a humor of medieval physiology believed to be secreted by the kidneys or spleen and to cause melancholy);

2. The Restoration comedy of Intrigue (interest/fascinate), specializing in situations arising out of infidelity (the action or state of being unfaithful to a spouse) in love and marriage;

3. The comedy of Manners, which is also of Restoration period, in which the language and behavior was highly stylized (not natural or spontaneous;) and artificial;

4. The Genteel (refined/respectable/polished) comedy of Colley Cibber, ridiculing the affectations (behaviour, speech that is pretentious and designed to impress) (wigs, shoes, ribbons, toilette, etc) of 18^th century society;

5. The Sentimental comedy of the late 18^th Century, presents tears in the place of laughter, in place of intrigue (interest), melodramatic (exaggerated or overemotional) and distressing (causing anxiety, sorrow or pain) situation; in place of rogues, gallants (suitor) and witty damsels (young lady/girl/miss) ‘pathetic heroines, serious lovers and honest servants’.

               

                Another basis of classification is that if the plot unfolds itself mainly through dialogue or narration, and assigns a subordinate place to incident or action, the result is a comedy of Dialogue. The result is said to be comedy of Incident if the dialogue plays a second part mainly through action. A well built comedy unites both in judicious (good judgement/sensible) proportions.

                Until 1860s in comedy the language and atmosphere of the English drama remained fairly remote that of ordinary life. It was only when TW Robertson’s ‘Caste’ showed what could be done with more natural speech and subjects.   

Tragedy Sem 3-Unit 1

 

Tragedy

Tragedy deals with the dark side of life. It aims at inspiring us with pity and awe. In tragedy the characters are involved in circumstances that impel them towards an unhappy fate. Tragedy in the Greek drama deals with the fate of characters of high birth stations, kings, princes and household. In ancient Greece the tragic actor put on a thick-soled and high heeled boot, called the buskin or cothurnus, to make him appear tall and majestic.

Though humble men can suffer just as deeply as the great, and their misfortunes equally deserve our pity, it was not unreasonable for the old dramatists to feel that only the lives of the famous and powerful offered fitting subjects for tragedy. The fall of a king, or the ruin of a great family, is bound to be more impressive to the spectator than the fate of a nonentity (common man) and the doings of an ordinary mortal can scarcely be clothed in sublime poetic language, grandeur and dignity.

In later literature there were many tragedies of lowly life. The best example of a tragic novel is Hardy’s ‘Tess of the D’Urbervilles’ there is no hero in this novel but a dairyamaid for its heroine.

The 18^th century saw the rise of a new type of tragedy, called the Domestic tragedy, which attempted to use the characters and incidents of ordinary life as the subject of serious drama. The best example of this is George Lillo’s London Merchant. One very important point that must be borne in mind is that the plays were written in prose and not in verse.

Tragic atmosphere

The atmosphere of tragedy is somber and serious. Tragedy ‘purges the emotions through pity and terror’. In pure tragedy one cannot find it intermingled with comedy. Such were the classical plays of both Greece and Rome.

In English literature the two are frequently found intermingled. There are comic interludes in many of the tragedies. Thus Shakespeare’s tragedies may begin happily and end unhappily and his comedies may begin unhappily and end happily.

This type of plot suits the English temperament and is also more in accordance with the realities of life. These variations however do not affect the general atmosphere which is gloomy in tragedy. Tragedy moves inevitably towards disaster.

Tragedy aims at giving pleasure. It may seem strange to say that pleasure can be found in spectacle (striking performance) of a human being’s suffering and unhappy fate. Nevertheless tragedy does afford pleasure, and of a lofty (high) order. For example the spectacle of noble character caught in the coils (twist) of circumstance, when the language and the artistry of the presentation rise to match the high passions and issues of the story, which makes the audience feel exalted and ennobled (noble rank) rather than distressed.

For the Greeks, tragedy was to effect a Catharsis (providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions) or a purgation (purification) of the emotions. Tragedy purified the feelings it raised the audience morally and spiritually.

Example Milton’s Samson Agonistes, a tragedy constructed on the Greek model.

The story in tragedy is usually allowed to convey its own moral, though it is sometimes stated at the end of the play by one of the characters. Even in the most tragic drama, wrong does not triumph, though right may have been worsted for a time.

 

Types of tragedy

Tragedy can be classified in two ways:

Form or structure 2. Matter or theme

Classical and Romantic

Classical tragedy is based on Greek convention. The main feature of classical type is the observance of what is called the Three Unities and the employment of the device called chorus. The theory of three unities i.e., time, action and place is based on the writings of Aristotle. Aristotle however mentions the first two and the third that is the place is being implied in the first.

Unity of time means that the time over which the plot is spread would be the same or approximately the same. For example if the events are exceeding over years are shown in few hours will have no semblance of reality to the logical Greek mind.

The unity of action makes double provision that means the plot should either be purely tragic or purely comic but not the mixture of two. The events of the play should be confined to one species and one single plot to ensure verisimilitude (appearance of being true or real). The incidents must be logically connected.

Unity of place is a natural corollary (outcome or result) of the Unity of time. If the place limits itself to events that cover only few hours, it must confine itself to one place. For example the scene could not in those days, have been in Athens first and next in Alexandria as this would require a plot to spread over a long period of time and hence violate the unity of time.

The chorus is other noteworthy element in Greek tragedy. It consisted of a body of actors whose business was to report what happened off the stage and to make such moral comment as required from time to time as it would deepen the desired effect. It was sometime an integral part of the plot or sometimes only loosely related to it.

The Greek theatrical tradition- the heavy costume, obstructive cothurnus, and the loosely-hanging mask, all of which the tragic actor puts on to appear more than a human, but this did not favor the representation of violent physical action on the stage; these were reported instead by the chorus. Its more important function was to send the audience with a strengthened conviction of the might of gods, for its purpose is to indulge in lengthy moral reflecting on the interruption of the progress of the plot.

The Romantic tragedy is built on different plan. It is not restricted to the three unities and it doesn’t employ chorus except for the occasional introductory passage. It is not banned from choosing a plot ranging over long stretches of time, or neccessiating a mixture of the tragic and the comic, or from introducing a subplot. The scene of action may also change as often as the plot requires.

 

Drama- Sem 3 Unit 1

 

Drama

History of Drama

The word drama comes from the Greek word meaning ‘action’.

 It started with the Greeks and Romans and hence drama is defined as classical drama and

in fact classical drama was more than just acting out a story.

Their plays were mostly symbolic and included music, dance, poetry and audience would also sometimes participate in it.

                As Christianity was spreading widely and rapidly that was when theatre took a religious turn, opening the door to the morality plays of the medieval period. In Europe during 15^th and 16^th centuries the morality plays would always feature a hero overcoming evil.

In literature drama defines a style of writing it is usually a play that can be performed for theatre, radio or even television. These plays are usually written out as a script where the play is read by the actors but not the audience.

                Drama is meant to be performed on the stage in front of an audience at the theatre. It presents a fiction or facts in such a way that it could be acted before the audience. The dramatist doesn’t address the audience directly he does it through the characters.

The rule is that it is intended to be performed before the audience and not to be read in private.

The qualities of drama are fully revealed in the presentation on the stage that is the author, actor and the stage manager all combine to produce the total effect.

A play must deliver the whole message within a few hours. The dramatist works within very strict limits for he has to work with number of collaborators, for he has to take into account; the audience, the actors, the producer, the scene-painter, the dress maker, the musician, the electrician and others.

He has to keep in mind or consider the cost, mechanical and physical limitations.

The Structure of the Play

All drama sets forth a problem or a conflict.

In tragedy the theme is dark and serious

In comedy it is light and gay promising a happy ending.

The structure will be the same in both the cases that is it will have both problem and conflict but the theme differs .

The play requires five things for it to be effective

Exposition: meaning explanation of an idea or comprehensive description. So an exposition must explain the circumstances or situation from which the action must take the course (develop or progress)

Complication or rising action: play gets more involved.

Climax or crisis: the turn is for better or worse depending upon whether it’s a tragedy or comedy

Denouement or falling action: which unravels (undo or solve) the complication

Solution in comedy and Catastrophe in tragedy: it decides the fate of the characters.

A play is always divided into five acts so in a five act play exposition occupies the first act. The complication the next two act, climax will be a part of act three. Denouement the rest of third and fourth and a part of fifth. The solution or catastrophe the rest of fifth act.

Elizabethan Drama

The 5 important or prominent characteristic of Elizabethan drama:

Drama became the national passion: during Elizabethan times the wide variety of people that is from peasant to merchants vied (compete) for a place in society.

Hero was not ascertained of his fate (determined by his fate): The Elizabethan introduced hero who was filled with doubts and passion this catapulted (launched) drama which became the favorite pass time for many.

The theatre: the use of expansive metaphors in text and performances were so successful that it lead to the opening of first public theatre known as ‘The Theatre’ by carpenter James Burbage

The Globe: this age is also know for experimentation leading to new discoveries which provided rich content for drama, poetry and prose and this spark ignited the passion that led to Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson and Shakespeare and his famous ‘The Globe’ in the future. (The Globe Theatre was a theatre in London associated with William Shakespeare. It was built in 1599 by Shakespeare's playing company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men, on land owned by Thomas Brend and inherited by his son, Nicholas Brend and grandson Sir Matthew Brend, and was destroyed by fire on 29 June 1613.)

Exercise of propaganda i.e., glorifying the king:  the drama of the time opened door for propaganda and glorifying the kings and the monarch and also lead to the development of proscenium stage.

There are three forms of Drama during Elizabeth period

The Tragedy with spectacular and violent deaths of the protagonist. Revenge became the ultimate pursuit in most tragedies with romance as the main objective.

History plays also ended in catastrophe or in triumph with the nation projected as the hero. History valorized patriotism which was often jingoistic (extreme patriotism) in nature.

Comedy: the main aim of comedy was to make people laugh but they were not as prominent as the other two genre.

Elizabethan Drama Themes

Anti-semitism(discrimination against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group): among the various themes anti-semitism was one of the popular themes during Elizabethan society and is reflected in the plays of the period with such hatred as seen in Christopher Marlowse’s The Jew of Malta and William Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Vennice.

Revenge Tragedy: revenge was another popular theme. Be it a ghost-like in Thomas Kyd’s ‘The Spanish Tragedy’ or the prince in Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’. The motive of revenge became the main counter- motive in drama, especially tragedies. Practical set plays and costumes also added to passionate rendering of such revenge plots and realistic portrayals on stage.

Supernatural Elements: another theme that was prominent was supernatural elements as the society of the time was highly superstitious with people believing in supernatural forces. Ghost became the prime moving force in many tragedies.

Comedy of humors: use of psychology was extensive and was founded on the theory of humors inside human body.